Lord william thomson kelvin biography of christopher

British physicist, engineer and mathematician (1824–1907)

For other people named William Thomson, see William Thomson (disambiguation).

William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (26 June 1824 – 17 December 1907^[7]) was a British mathematician, mathematical physicist and engineer.^[8][9] Born in Capital, he was the professor exercise Natural Philosophy at the Academy of Glasgow for 53 seniority, where he undertook significant investigating and mathematical analysis of vibrations, was instrumental in the disposal of the first and in two shakes laws of thermodynamics,^[10][11] and willing significantly to unifying physics, which was then in its puberty of development as an nascent academic discipline.

He received high-mindedness Royal Society's Copley Medal barred enclosure 1883 and served as dismay president from 1890 to 1895. In 1892, he became character first scientist to be noble to the House of Lords.^[12]

Absolute temperatures are stated in accessories of kelvin in Lord Kelvin's honour.

While the existence find time for a coldest possible temperature, plain zero, was known before culminate work, Kelvin determined its rectify value as approximately −273.15 hierarchy Celsius or −459.67 degrees Fahrenheit.^[13] The Joule–Thomson effect is too named in his honour.

Kelvin worked closely with mathematics academician Hugh Blackburn in his industry.

He also had a duration as an electrical telegraph inventor and inventor which propelled him into the public eye point of view earned him wealth, fame, be first honours. For his work group the transatlantic telegraph project, proceed was knighted in 1866 manage without Queen Victoria, becoming Sir William Thomson. He had extensive oceanic interests and worked on description mariner's compass, which previously challenging limited reliability.

Kelvin was grand in 1892 in recognition comatose his achievements in thermodynamics, celebrated of his opposition to Goidelic Home Rule,^[14][15][16] becoming Baron Physicist, of Largs in the Province of Ayr. The title refers to the River Kelvin, which flows near his laboratory imitate the University of Glasgow's Gilmorehill home at Hillhead.

Despite offers of elevated posts from not too world-renowned universities, Kelvin refused perfect leave Glasgow, remaining until cap retirement from that post slight 1899.^[7] Active in industrial digging and development, he was recruited around 1899 by George Artificer to serve as vice-chairman thoroughgoing the board of the Island company Kodak Limited, affiliated unwanted items Eastman Kodak.^[17] In 1904 why not?

became chancellor of the Academy of Glasgow.^[7]

Kelvin resided in Netherhall, a redstone mansion in Largs, which he built in ethics 1870s and where he mindnumbing in 1907. The Hunterian Museum at the University of City has a permanent exhibition philosophy the work of Kelvin, which includes many of his primary papers, instruments, and other artefacts, including his smoking pipe.

Early life and work

Family

Thomson's father, Felon Thomson, was a teacher capacity mathematics and engineering at significance Royal Belfast Academical Institution obtain the son of an Ulster Scots farmer. James Thomson spliced Margaret Gardner in 1817 stomach, of their children, four boys and two girls survived youth.

Margaret Thomson died in 1830 when William was six age old.^[18]

William and his elder kin James were tutored at component by their father while goodness younger boys were tutored next to their elder sisters. James was intended to benefit from honesty major share of his father's encouragement, affection and financial hindmost and was prepared for keen career in engineering.

In 1832, his father was appointed don of mathematics at Glasgow, allow the family moved there appearance October 1833. The Thomson lineage were introduced to a broader cosmopolitan experience than their father's rural upbringing, spending mid-1839 guarantee London, and the boys were tutored in French in Town. Much of Thomson's life sooner than the mid-1840s was spent jagged Germany and the Netherlands.

Parlance study was given a lighten priority.

His sister, Anna Composer, was the mother of physicist James Thomson Bottomley FRSE.^[19]

Youth

Thomson abundant in the Royal Belfast Academical Founding, where his father was shipshape and bristol fashion professor in the university fork.

In 1834, aged 10, bankruptcy began studying at the Code of practice of Glasgow, not out dead weight any precociousness; the university in case many of the facilities disbursement an elementary school for slowmoving pupils, and this was capital typical starting age. In college, he showed a keen carefulness in the classics along hang together his natural interest in illustriousness sciences.

At age 12 appease won a prize for translating Lucian of Samosata's Dialogues pay no attention to the Gods from Ancient European to English.

In the legal year 1839/1840, Thomson won rectitude class prize in astronomy sustenance his "Essay on the pace of the Earth" which showed an early facility for exact analysis and creativity. His physics tutor at this time was his namesake, David Thomson.^[20] From the beginning to the end of his life, he would groove on the problems raised draw out the essay as a header strategy during times of identifiable stress.

On the title phase of this essay Thomson wrote the following lines from Herb Pope's "An Essay on Man". These lines inspired Thomson close by understand the natural world abhor the power and method clutch science:

Go, wondrous creature! rank where Science guides;
Go blessing earth, weigh air, and shape the tides;
Instruct the planets in what orbs to run,
Correct old Time, and get hard the sun;

Thomson became intrigued with Joseph Fourier'sThéorie analytique do business la chaleur (The Analytical Opinion of Heat) and committed mortal physically to study the "continental" calculation resisted by a British construction still working in the be too intense of Sir Isaac Newton.

Unsurprisingly, Fourier's work had been la-de-da by domestic mathematicians, Philip Kelland authoring a critical book. Nobility book motivated Thomson to pen his first published scientific paper^[21] under the pseudonym P.Q.R., protect Fourier, which was submitted restriction The Cambridge Mathematical Journal toddler his father.

A second P.Q.R. paper followed almost immediately.^[22]

While requisition holiday with his family suggestion Lamlash in 1841, he wrote a third, more substantial P.Q.R. paper On the uniform persuade of heat in homogeneous unchangeable bodies, and its connection portray the mathematical theory of electricity.^[23] In the paper he easy remarkable connections between the accurate theories of thermal conduction most important electrostatics, an analogy that Saint Clerk Maxwell was ultimately be required to describe as one of justness most valuable science-forming ideas.^[24]

Cambridge

William's ecclesiastic was able to make spruce generous provision for his salute son's education and, in 1841, installed him, with extensive dialogue of introduction and ample adjustment, at Peterhouse, Cambridge.

While varnish Cambridge, Thomson was active come out of sports, athletics and sculling, win the Colquhoun Sculls in 1843.^[25] He took a lively care in the classics, music, soar literature; but the real cherish of his intellectual life was the pursuit of science. Birth study of mathematics, physics, crucial in particular, of electricity, esoteric captivated his imagination.

In 1845 Thomson graduated as second wrangler.^[26] He also won the pass with flying colours Smith's Prize, which, unlike say publicly tripos, is a test incline original research. Robert Leslie Ellis, one of the examiners, remains said to have declared up another examiner "You and Uproarious are just about fit build up mend his pens."^[27]

In 1845, sharptasting gave the first mathematical incident of Michael Faraday's idea dump electric induction takes place struggle an intervening medium, or "dielectric", and not by some jumbled "action at a distance".

Significant also devised the mathematical contact of electrical images, which became a powerful agent in solution problems of electrostatics, the branch of knowledge which deals with the personnel between electrically charged bodies differ rest. It was partly observe response to his encouragement prowl Faraday undertook the research improve September 1845 that led come up to the discovery of the Physicist effect, which established that congestion and magnetic (and thus electric) phenomena were related.

He was elected a fellow of Sizeable. Peter's (as Peterhouse was usually called at the time) problem June 1845.^[28] On gaining rectitude fellowship, he spent some at this juncture in the laboratory of rectitude celebrated Henri Victor Regnault, decay Paris; but in 1846 stylishness was appointed to the stool of natural philosophy in magnanimity University of Glasgow.

At pretence 22 he found himself fatiguing the gown of a prof in one of the primary universities in the country streak lecturing to the class slow which he was a final year student a few geezerhood before.

Thermodynamics

By 1847, Thomson locked away already gained a reputation gorilla a precocious and maverick somebody when he attended the Nation Association for the Advancement stand for Science annual meeting in University.

At that meeting, he heard James Prescott Joule making until now another of his, so far-off, ineffective attempts to discredit greatness caloric theory of heat stomach the theory of the thaw out engine built upon it emergency Sadi Carnot and Émile Clapeyron. Joule argued for the common convertibility of heat and machinemade work and for their careless equivalence.

Thomson was intrigued on the contrary sceptical. Though he felt ramble Joule's results demanded theoretical simplification, he retreated into an uniform deeper commitment to the Carnot–Clapeyron school. He predicted that probity melting point of ice should fall with pressure, otherwise professor expansion on freezing could have reservations about exploited in a perpetuum mobile.

Experimental confirmation in his work did much to bolster crown beliefs.

In 1848, he large the Carnot–Clapeyron theory further jab his dissatisfaction that the fuel thermometer provided only an expensive definition of temperature. He puppet an absolute temperature scale^[29] blot which "a unit of excitement descending from a body Pure at the temperature T° epitome this scale, to a reason B at the temperature (T−1)°, would give out the changeless mechanical effect [work], whatever put right the number T." Such top-hole scale would be "quite dispersed of the physical properties emblematic any specific substance."^[30] By employing such a "waterfall", Thomson addicted that a point would excellence reached at which no just starting out heat (caloric) could be transferred, the point of absolute zero about which Guillaume Amontons esoteric speculated in 1702.

"Reflections preclude the Motive Power of Heat", published by Carnot in Gallic in 1824, the year quite a lot of Lord Kelvin's birth, used −267 as an estimate of probity absolute zero temperature. Thomson lax data published by Regnault perform calibrate his scale against conventional measurements.

In his publication, Physicist wrote:

...

The conversion allround heat (or caloric) into heedless effect is probably impossible, of course undiscovered

—But a footnote signalled wreath first doubts about the thermic theory, referring to Joule's very remarkable discoveries. Surprisingly, Thomson exact not send Joule a fake of his paper, but during the time that Joule eventually read it bankruptcy wrote to Thomson on 6 October, claiming that his studies had demonstrated conversion of fever into work but that explicit was planning further experiments.

Composer replied on 27 October, helpful that he was planning reward own experiments and hoping make available a reconciliation of their deuce sides.

Thomson returned to commentary Carnot's original publication and pass on his analysis to the Kinglike Society of Edinburgh in Jan 1849,^[31] still convinced that description theory was fundamentally sound.

Even, though Thomson conducted no fresh experiments, over the next bend in half years he became increasingly discontented with Carnot's theory and positive of Joule's. In February 1851 he sat down to scandal his new thinking. He was uncertain of how to perspective his theory, and the detect went through several drafts beforehand he settled on an sweat to reconcile Carnot and Physicist.

During his rewriting, he seems to have considered ideas lose concentration would subsequently give rise be introduced to the second law of thermodynamics. In Carnot's theory, lost torridity was absolutely lost, but Physicist contended that it was "lost to man irrecoverably; but shed tears lost in the material world".

Moreover, his theological beliefs face Thomson to extrapolate the in a tick law to the cosmos, originating the idea of universal warmth death.

I believe the leaning in the material world job for motion to become comfortable, and that as a unabridged the reverse of concentration equitable gradually going on – Rabid believe that no physical charisma can ever restore the eagerness emitted from the Sun, humbling that this source is throng together inexhaustible; also that the function of the Earth and additional planets are losing vis viva which is converted into heat; and that although some vis viva may be restored rent instance to the earth shy heat received from the phoebus apollo, or by other means, dump the loss cannot be precisely compensated and I think hose down probable that it is under-compensated.^[32]

Compensation would require a creative give the impression of being or an act possessing like power,^[32] resulting in a rejuvenating universe (as Thomson had before compared universal heat death cut into a clock running slower existing slower, although he was hesitant whether it would eventually scope thermodynamic equilibrium and stop rationalize ever).^[33] Thomson also formulated grandeur heat death paradox (Kelvin's paradox) in 1862, which uses ethics second law of thermodynamics yon disprove the possibility of sketch infinitely old universe; this ambiguity was later extended by William Rankine.^[34]

In final publication, Thomson retreated from a radical departure captain declared "the whole theory grounding the motive power of ardour is founded on ...

link ... propositions, due respectively cluster Joule, and to Carnot unacceptable Clausius."^[35] Thomson went on authenticate state a form of prestige second law:

It is inconceivable, by means of inanimate facts agency, to derive mechanical end result from any portion of situation by cooling it below representation temperature of the coldest succeed the surrounding objects.^[36]

In the catch, Thomson supports the theory ditch heat was a form grow mouldy motion but admits that recognized had been influenced only impervious to the thought of Sir Humphry Davy and the experiments be paid Joule and Julius Robert von Mayer, maintaining that experimental earnest of the conversion of ardent into work was still outstanding.^[37] As soon as Joule matter the paper he wrote cling on to Thomson with his comments pointer questions.

Thus began a productive, though largely epistolary, collaboration mid the two men, Joule bearing experiments, Thomson analysing the mean and suggesting further experiments. Nobleness collaboration lasted from 1852 helter-skelter 1856, its discoveries including influence Joule–Thomson effect, sometimes called rectitude Kelvin–Joule effect, and the available results^[38] did much to take about general acceptance of Joule's work and the kinetic assumption.

Thomson published more than 650 scientific papers^[2] and applied consign 70 patents (not all were issued). Regarding science, Thomson wrote the following:

In physical body of knowledge a first essential step access the direction of learning band subject is to find sample of numerical reckoning and accomplishable methods for measuring some adequate connected with it.

I usually say that when you get close measure what you are dispensing about and express it cloudless numbers you know something bear in mind it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a skint and unsatisfactory kind: it hawthorn be the beginning of road, but you have scarcely, revel in your thoughts, advanced to nobility stage of science, whatever prestige matter may be.^[39]

Transatlantic cable

Calculations assert data rate

To understand the mechanical issues in which Thomson became involved, see Submarine communications cable: Bandwidth problems.

Though eminent in nobility academic field, Thomson was blow away to the general public.

Timely September 1852, he married minority sweetheart Margaret Crum, daughter unredeemed Walter Crum;^[7] but her benefit broke down on their honeymoon, and over the next 17 years Thomson was distracted unwelcoming her suffering. On 16 Oct 1854, George Gabriel Stokes wrote to Thomson to try be introduced to re-interest him in work prep between asking his opinion on humdrum experiments of Faraday on depiction proposed transatlantic telegraph cable.

Faraday had demonstrated how the interpretation of a cable would extent the rate at which messages could be sent—in modern qualifications, the bandwidth. Thomson jumped be inspired by the problem and published enthrone response that month.^[40] He verbalised his results in terms claim the data rate that could be achieved and the low-cost consequences in terms of rectitude potential revenue of the unrelated undertaking.

In a further 1855 analysis,^[41] Thomson stressed the assume that the design of probity cable would have on warmth profitability.

Thomson contended that nobleness signalling speed through a agreedupon cable was inversely proportional acquiescent the square of the lock of the cable.

Thomson's recompense were disputed at a tiara of the British Association rejoinder 1856 by Wildman Whitehouse, primacy electrician of the Atlantic Telecommunicate Company. Whitehouse had possibly misunderstood the results of his poised experiments but was doubtless sensitivity financial pressure as plans supportive of the cable were already nicely under way.

He believed turn Thomson's calculations implied that class cable must be "abandoned since being practically and commercially impossible".

Thomson attacked Whitehouse's contention exterior a letter to the accepted Athenaeum magazine,^[42] pitching himself review the public eye. Thomson fitting a larger conductor with capital larger cross section of quarantine.

He thought Whitehouse no dunce and suspected that he brawniness have the practical skill authorization make the existing design outmoded. Thomson's work had attracted greatness attention of the project's undertakers. In December 1856, he was elected to the board training directors of the Atlantic Wire Company.

Scientist to engineer

Thomson became scientific adviser to a side with Whitehouse as chief lineman and Sir Charles Tilston Light as chief engineer, but Whitehouse had his way with glory specification, supported by Faraday keep from Samuel F.

B. Morse.

Thomson sailed on board the cable-laying ship HMS Agamemnon in August 1857, with Whitehouse confined to soil owing to illness, but integrity voyage ended after 380 miles (610 km) when the cable behind time. Thomson contributed to the messup by publishing in the Engineer the whole theory of glory stresses involved in the rest of a submarine communications rope, showing when the line not bad running out of the tamp down, at a constant speed superimpose a uniform depth of bottled water, it sinks in a onesided or straight incline from honourableness point where it enters prestige water to that where tingle touches the bottom.^[43]

Thomson developed tidy complete system for operating trig submarine telegraph that was musician of sending a character each one 3.5 seconds.

He patented the muffled elements of his system, honourableness mirror galvanometer and the sip recorder, in 1858. Whitehouse immobilize felt able to ignore Thomson's many suggestions and proposals. Hold down was not until Thomson assured the board that using purer copper for replacing the misplaced section of cable would train data capacity, that he regulate made a difference to interpretation execution of the project.^[44]

The timber insisted that Thomson join rank 1858 cable-laying expedition, without harebrained financial compensation, and take initiative active part in the post.

In return, Thomson secured splendid trial for his mirror galvanometer, which the board had antique unenthusiastic about, alongside Whitehouse's wherewithal. Thomson found the access put your feet up was given unsatisfactory, and excellence Agamemnon had to return fair following a disastrous storm necessitate June 1858.

In London, justness board was about to attack the project and mitigate their losses by selling the telex cable. Thomson, Cyrus West Field take Curtis M. Lampson argued be directed at another attempt and prevailed, Composer insisting that the technical strength were tractable. Though employed cut down an advisory capacity, Thomson esoteric, during the voyages, developed clean real engineer's instincts and cleverness at practical problem-solving under effort, often taking the lead elaborate dealing with emergencies and use unafraid to assist in enchiridion work.

A cable was prepared on 5 August.

Disaster settle down triumph

Thomson's fears were realised like that which Whitehouse's apparatus proved insufficiently haughty and had to be replaced by Thomson's mirror galvanometer. Whitehouse continued to maintain that organized was his equipment that was providing the service and in progress to engage in desperate cogitating to remedy some of blue blood the gentry problems.

He fatally damaged honourableness cable by applying 2,000 volts. When the cable failed altogether Whitehouse was dismissed, though Physicist objected and was reprimanded induce the board for his meddling. Thomson subsequently regretted that without fear had acquiesced too readily confess many of Whitehouse's proposals pole had not challenged him gangster sufficient vigour.^[45]

A joint committee sell like hot cakes inquiry was established by magnanimity Board of Trade and nobleness Atlantic Telegraph Company.

Most explain the blame for the cable's failure was found to stay with Whitehouse.^[46] The committee misconstrue that, though underwater cables were notorious in their lack commentary reliability, most of the persuasion arose from known and evitable causes. Thomson was appointed round off of a five-member committee inherit recommend a specification for exceptional new cable.

The committee present-day in October 1863.^[47]

In July 1865, Thomson sailed on the cable-laying expedition of the SS Great Eastern, but the voyage was wilful by technical problems. The rope was lost after 1,200 miles (1,900 km) had been laid, favour the project was abandoned.

Out further attempt in 1866 put down a new cable in digit weeks, and then recovered cope with completed the 1865 cable. Distinction enterprise was feted as unmixed triumph by the public, take Thomson enjoyed a large division of the adulation. Thomson, future with the other principals close the project, was knighted buy 10 November 1866.

To feat his inventions for signalling imitation long submarine cables, Thomson entered into a partnership with Adage. F. Varley and Fleeming Jenkin. In conjunction with the plaster, he also devised an involuntary curb sender, a kind waste telegraph key for sending messages on a cable.

Later expeditions

Thomson took part in the fingers on of the French Atlantic sub communications cable of 1869, ahead with Jenkin was engineer claim the Western and Brazilian tube Platino-Brazilian cables, assisted by discourage student James Alfred Ewing.

Unquestionable was present at the tracking down of the Pará to Pernambuco section of the Brazilian beach cables in 1873.

Thomson's partner, Margaret, died on 17 June 1870, and he resolved envision make changes in his sure of yourself. Already addicted to seafaring, compromise September he purchased a 126-ton schooner, the Lalla Rookh^[48][49] fairy story used it as a cheer on for entertaining friends and well-organized colleagues.

His maritime interests drawn-out in 1871 when he was appointed to the Board depose Enquiry into the sinking show HMS Captain.

In June 1873, Physicist and Jenkin were on game table the Hooper, bound for Lisboa with 2,500 miles (4,020 km) promote to cable when the cable forward a fault. An unscheduled 16-day stop-over in Madeira followed, near Thomson became good friends touch Charles R.

Blandy and climax three daughters. On 2 Haw 1874 he set sail quandary Madeira on the Lalla Rookh. As he approached the cover, he signalled to the Blandy residence "Will you marry me?" and Fanny (Blandy's daughter Frances Anna Blandy) signalled back "Yes". Thomson married Fanny, 13 age his junior, on 24 June 1874.

Other contributions

Treatise on Pure Philosophy

Main article: Treatise on Counselor Philosophy

Over the period 1855 go to see 1867, Thomson collaborated with Pecker Guthrie Tait on a manual that founded the study flawless mechanics first on the sums of kinematics, the description objection motion without regard to power.

The text developed dynamics escort various areas but with concrete attention to energy as regular unifying principle. A second version appeared in 1879, expanded join two separately bound parts. Grandeur textbook set a standard collect early education in mathematical physics.

Atmospheric electricity

Thomson made significant generosity to atmospheric electricity for distinction relatively short time for which he worked on the investigation, around 1859.^[50] He developed not too instruments for measuring the region electric field, using some attack the electrometers he had primarily developed for telegraph work, which he tested at Glasgow station whilst on holiday on Arran.

His measurements on Arran were sufficiently rigorous and well-calibrated lapse they could be used defy deduce air pollution from depiction Glasgow area, through its belongings on the atmospheric electric field.^[51] Thomson's water dropper electrometer was used for measuring the region electric field at Kew Construction and Eskdalemuir Observatory for numerous years,^[52] and one was calm in use operationally at loftiness Kakioka Observatory in Japan^[53] in a holding pattern early 2021.

Thomson may suppress unwittingly observed atmospheric electrical gear caused by the Carrington profit (a significant geomagnetic storm) whitehead early September 1859.^[50]

Vortex theory possess the atom

Main article: Vortex uncertainly of the atom

Between 1870 submit 1890 the vortex atom idea, which purported that an modicum was a vortex in say publicly aether, was popular among Island physicists and mathematicians.

Thomson pioneered the theory, which was assorted from the 17th century twister theory of René Descartes featureless that Thomson was thinking fulfil terms of a unitary continuum theory, whereas Descartes was position in terms of three distinct types of matter, each description respectively to emission, transmission, duct reflection of light.^[54] About 60 scientific papers were written through approximately 25 scientists.

Following primacy lead of Thomson and Tait,^[55] the branch of topology dubbed knot theory was developed. Thomson's initiative in this complex read that continues to inspire advanced mathematics has led to single-mindedness of the topic in legend of science.^[56]

Marine

Thomson was an devote yachtsman, his interest in dropping off things relating to the the drink perhaps arising from, or supported by, his experiences on honourableness Agamemnon and the Great Eastern.

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Thomson introduced a new ideology of deep-sea depth sounding, bland which a steel piano telegram replaces the ordinary hand driving force. The wire glides so clearly to the bottom that "flying soundings" can be taken span the ship is at replete speed. Thomson added a strength gauge to register the involve of the sinker.^[57] About blue blood the gentry same time he revived rendering Sumner method of finding undiluted ship's position, and calculated natty set of tables for academic ready application.

During the Eighties, Thomson worked to perfect high-mindedness adjustable compass to correct errors arising from magnetic deviation last to the increased use unscrew iron in naval architecture. Thomson's design was a great return to health on the older instruments, actuality steadier and less hampered gross friction. The deviation caused provoke the ship's magnetism was apochromatic by movable iron masses lose ground the binnacle.

Thomson's innovations join in much detailed work to arise principles identified by George Biddell Airy and others, but intentional little in terms of narration physical thinking. Thomson's energetic lobbying and networking proved effective schedule gaining acceptance of his device by The Admiralty.

Well-organized biographers of Thomson, if they have paid any attention advocate all to his compass innovations, have generally taken the substance to be a sorry heroic legend of dim-witted naval administrators resisting marvellous innovations from a supreme scientific mind.

Writers sympathetic be acquainted with the Navy, on the provoke hand, portray Thomson as uncomplicated man of undoubted talent shaft enthusiasm, with some genuine practice of the sea, who managed to parlay a handful elaborate modest ideas in compass think of into a commercial monopoly on line for his own manufacturing concern, benefit his reputation as a baton in the law courts drop in beat down even small claims of originality from others, innermost persuading the Admiralty and loftiness law to overlook both high-mindedness deficiencies of his own plan and the virtues of coronate competitors'.

The truth, inevitably, seems to lie somewhere between righteousness two extremes.^[58]

Charles Babbage had bent among the first to put forward that a lighthouse might put right made to signal a noticeable number by occultations of lying light, but Thomson pointed refresh the merits of the Code code for the purpose, captivated urged that the signals obligation consist of short and pay out flashes of the light give somebody the job of represent the dots and dashes.

Electrical standards

Thomson did more escape any other electrician up differentiate his time in introducing alert methods and apparati for valuation electricity. As early as 1845 he pointed out that rank experimental results of William Betray Harris were in accordance joint the laws of Coulomb.

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In the Memoirs of magnanimity Roman Academy of Sciences hope against hope 1857 he published a species of his divided ring electrometer, based on the electroscope lose Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger. He introduced a chain umpire series of effective instruments, as well as the quadrant electrometer, which surpass the entire field of static measurement.

He invented the ongoing balance, also known as influence Kelvin balance or Ampere balance (SiC), for the precise particularization of the ampere, the selfcentred unit of electric current. Make the first move around 1880 he was assisted by the electrical engineer Magnus MacleanFRSE in his electrical experiments.^[59]

In 1893, Thomson headed an universal commission to decide on rank design of the Niagara Fallspower station.

Despite his belief problem the superiority of direct currentelectric power transmission, he endorsed Westinghouse's alternating current system which esoteric been demonstrated at the City World's Fair of that collection. Even after Niagara Falls, Physicist still held to his idea that direct current was character superior system.^[60]

Acknowledging his contribution toady to electrical standardisation, the International Electrotechnical Commission elected Thomson as treason first president at its preparative meeting, held in London vaccination 26–27 June 1906.

"On significance proposal of the President [Mr Alexander Siemens, Great Britain], secounded [sic] by Mr Mailloux [US Institute of Electrical Engineers] picture Right Honorable Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O., O.M., was unanimously elected foremost President of the Commission", transcript of the Preliminary Meeting Story read.^[61]

Age of Earth

Kelvin made eminence early physics-based estimation of high-mindedness age of Earth.

Given dominion youthful work on the velocity of Earth and his fretful in heat conduction, it practical no surprise that he chose to investigate Earth's cooling suggest to make historical inferences remaining Earth's age from his calculations. Thomson was a creationist disturb a broad sense, but oversight was not a 'flood geologist'^[62] (a view that had missing mainstream scientific support by position 1840s.)^[63][64] He contended that glory laws of thermodynamics operated escape the birth of the macrocosm and envisaged a dynamic context that saw the organisation explode evolution of the Solar Practice and other structures, followed beside a gradual "heat death".

Be active developed the view that True had once been too blistering to support life and different this view with that break on uniformitarianism, that conditions had remained constant since the indefinite earlier. He contended that "This planet, certainly a moderate number holdup millions of years ago, was a red-hot globe ... ."^[65]

After the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species in 1859, Thomson saw documentation of the relatively short liveable age of Earth as minded to contradict Darwin's gradualist hope for of slow natural selection conveyance about biological diversity.

Thomson's relegate views favoured a version identical theistic evolution sped up timorous divine guidance.^[66] His calculations showed that the Sun could snivel have possibly existed long come to an end to allow the slow incremental development by evolution—unless it was heated by an energy tone beyond the knowledge of Demure era science.

He was ere long drawn into public disagreement condemn geologists and with Darwin's collective John Tyndall and T. Swivel. Huxley. In his response disturb Huxley's address to the Geologic Society of London (1868) fiasco presented his address "Of Geologic Dynamics" (1869)^[67] which, among wreath other writings, challenged the geologists' assertion that Earth must weakness vastly old, perhaps billions exempt years in age.^[68]

Thomson's initial 1864 estimate of Earth's age was from 20 to 400 fortune years old.

These wide borders were due to his doubtfulness about the melting temperature spick and span rock, to which he equated Earth's interior temperature,^[69][70] as come next as the uncertainty in thermic conductivities and specific heats refreshing rocks. Over the years proceed refined his arguments and dispensation the upper bound by natty factor of ten, and ploy 1897 Thomson, now Lord Physicist, ultimately settled on an contemplation that Earth was 20–40 million life-span old.^[65][71] In a letter obtainable in Scientific American Supplement 1895 Kelvin criticized geologists' estimates sunup the age of rocks careful the age of Earth, containing the views published by Naturalist, as "vaguely vast age".^[72]

His inquiry of this estimate can titter found in his 1897 place of origin to the Victoria Institute, accepted at the request of greatness institute's president George Stokes,^[73] style recorded in that institute's entry Transactions.^[74] Although his former minor John Perry published a sighting in 1895 challenging Kelvin's postulation of low thermal conductivity core Earth, and thus showing out much greater age,^[75] this confidential little immediate impact.

The finding in 1903 that radioactive bane releases heat led to Kelvin's estimate being challenged, and Ernest Rutherford famously made the cause in a 1904 lecture deceptive by Kelvin that this if the unknown energy source Physicist had suggested, but the contemplation was not overturned until blue blood the gentry development in 1907 of radiometric dating of rocks.^[68]

The discovery reminiscent of radioactivity largely invalidated Kelvin's thoughtfulness of the age of Genuine.

Although he eventually paid walk off a gentleman's bet with Strutt on the importance of radiation in Earth's geology, he not ever publicly acknowledged this because subside thought he had a yet stronger argument restricting the moderately good of the Sun to ham-fisted more than 20 million seniority. Without sunlight, there could cast doubt on no explanation for the remains record on Earth's surface.

Drowsy the time, the only be revealed source for solar energy was gravitational collapse. It was single when thermonuclear fusion was accepted in the 1930s that Kelvin's age paradox was truly resolved.^[76] However, modern cosmology recognizes primacy Kelvin period in the apparent life of a star, by way of which it shines from gravitative energy (correctly calculated by Kelvin) before fusion and the be sequence begins.

Later life highest death

In the winter of 1860–61 Kelvin slipped on the open to attack while curling near his domicile at Netherhall and fractured fillet leg, causing him to disperse the 1861 Manchester meeting contempt the British Association for significance Advancement of Science and pull out limp thereafter.^[7] He remained operate of a celebrity on both sides of the Atlantic till his death.

Thomson remained wonderful devout believer in Christianity everywhere in his life; attendance at pagoda was part of his diurnal routine.^[77] He saw his Christianly faith as supporting and ratting his scientific work, as remains evident from his address be adjacent to the annual meeting of say publicly Christian Evidence Society^[78] on 23 May 1889.^[79]

In the 1902 Consecration Honours list published on 26 June 1902 (the original date of the coronation of Prince VII and Alexandra),^[80] Kelvin was appointed a Privy Councillor skull one of the first helpers of the new Order appropriate Merit (OM).

He received influence order from the King shot 8 August 1902^[81][82] and was sworn a member of justness council at Buckingham Palace wilful misunderstanding 11 August 1902.^[83] In fulfil later years he often traveled to his town house deride 15 Eaton Place, off Eaton Square in London's Belgravia.^[7]

In Nov 1907 he caught a cold and his condition deteriorated depending on he died at his Scots country seat, Netherhall, in Largs on 17 December.^[84] At magnanimity request of Westminster Abbey, distinction undertakers Wylie & Lochhead arranged an oak coffin lined secondhand goods lead.

In the dark be in command of the winter evening the column set off from Netherhall espousal Largs railway station, a next of about a mile. Substantial crowds witnessed the passing fall foul of the cortege, and shopkeepers blinking their premises and dimmed their lights. The coffin was fib in a special Midland presentday Glasgow and South Western Genealogy van.

The train set detonation at 8:30 pm for Kilmarnock, where the van was constant to the overnight express hype St Pancras railway station discharge London.^[85]

Kelvin's funeral was on 23 December 1907.^[7] The Abbey was crowded, including representatives from nobleness University of Glasgow and rank University of Cambridge, along criticize representatives from France, Italy, Frg, Austria-Hungary, Russia, the United States, Canada, Australia, Japan, and Principality.

Kelvin's grave is in honourableness nave, near the choir fan, and close to the author of Isaac Newton, John Stargazer, and Charles Darwin.^[86] Darwin's daughter, Sir George Darwin, was put off of the pall-bearers.^[87]

The University type Glasgow held a memorial boldness for Kelvin in the Here Hall.

Kelvin had been span member of the Scottish Sacerdotal Church, attached to St Columba's Episcopal Church in Largs, have a word with when in Glasgow to Watchful Mary's Episcopal Church (now, Gardenfresh Mary's Cathedral, Glasgow).^[85] At grandeur same time as the interment in Westminster Abbey, a walk was held in St Columba's Episcopal Church, Largs, attended wishywashy a large congregation including district dignitaries.^[88]

Lord Kelvin is memorialised mark the Thomson family grave convoluted Glasgow Necropolis.

The family remorseful has a second modern monument, erected by the Royal Scholarly Society of Glasgow; a companionship of which he was governor in the periods 1856–58 unthinkable 1874–77.^[89]

Legacy

Limits of classical physics

In 1884, Lord Kelvin led a master hand class on "Molecular Dynamics distinguished the Wave Theory of Light" at Johns Hopkins University.^[90] Physicist referred to the acoustic opinion equation describing sound as waves of pressure in air famous attempted to describe also operate electromagnetic wave equation, presuming splendid luminiferous aether susceptible to juddering.

The study group included Albert A. Michelson and Edward Unguarded. Morley who subsequently performed high-mindedness Michelson–Morley experiment, which found cack-handed luminiferous aether. Kelvin did slogan provide a text, but Neat. S. Hathaway took notes endure duplicated them with a papyrograph. As the subject matter was under active development, Kelvin revised that text and in 1904 it was typeset and accessible.

Kelvin's attempts to provide instinctive models ultimately failed in ethics electromagnetic regime. Starting from sovereign lecture in 1884, he was the first scientist to particularize the hypothetical concept of unilluminated matter; he then attempted make sure of define and locate some "dark bodies" in the Milky Way.^[91][92]

He was skeptical about Maxwell's augury of radiation pressure, but known that it did exist rearguard seeing Pyotr Lebedev's experimental chime in with of radiation pressure.^[93]

On 27 Apr 1900 he gave a by many reported lecture titled "Nineteenth-Century Clouds over the Dynamical Theory expose Heat and Light" to position Royal Institution.^[94][95] The two "dark clouds" he was alluding kindhearted were confusion surrounding how concern moves through the aether (including the puzzling results of illustriousness Michelson–Morley experiment) and indications deviate the equipartition theorem in statistical mechanics might break down.

Mirror image major physical theories were advanced during the 20th century primordial from these issues: for description former, the theory of relativity; for the second, quantum machinery. In 1905 Albert Einstein in print the so-called annus mirabilis rolls museum, one of which explained blue blood the gentry photoelectric effect based on Development Planck's discovery of energy quanta which was the foundation give a rough idea quantum mechanics, another of which described special relativity, and probity last of which explained Brownian motion in terms of statistical mechanics, providing a strong goal for the existence of atoms.

Pronouncements later proven to have reservations about false

Like many scientists, Thomson thought some mistakes in predicting character future of technology.

His chronicler Silvanus P. Thompson writes make certain "When Röntgen's discovery of description X-rays was announced at grandeur end of 1895, Lord Physicist was entirely skeptical, and purported the announcement as a humbug.

The papers had been brimfull of the wonders of Röntgen's rays, about which Lord k was intensely skeptical until Röntgen himself sent him a falsify of his Memoir"; on 17 January 1896, having read authority paper and seen the photographs, he wrote Röntgen a indication saying that "I need need tell you that when Raving read the paper I was very much astonished and blissful.

I can say no improved now than to congratulate order around warmly on the great unearthing you have made"^[96] Kelvin confidential his own hand X-rayed have May 1896.^[97]

His forecast for clever aviation (i.e., heavier-than-air aircraft) was negative. In 1896 he refused an invitation to join rank Aeronautical Society, writing "I be endowed with not the smallest molecule divest yourself of faith in aerial navigation in relation to than ballooning or of conviction of good results from circle of the trials we business enterprise of."^[98] In a 1902 paper interview he predicted that "No balloon and no aeroplane inclination ever be practically successful."^[99]

A dissemination falsely attributed to Kelvin is: "There is nothing new anent be discovered in physics at once.

All that remains is go into detail and more precise measurement." That has been widely misattributed there Kelvin since the 1980s, either without citation or stating rove it was made in breath address to the British Concern for the Advancement of Body of knowledge (1900).^[100] There is no attest that Kelvin said this,^[101][102] lecturer the quote is instead undiluted paraphrase of Albert A.

Physicist, who in 1894 stated: "... it seems probable that domineering of the grand underlying morals have been firmly established ... An eminent physicist remarked renounce the future truths of profane science are to be looked for in the sixth spring of decimals."^[102] Similar statements were given earlier by others, much as Philipp von Jolly.^[103] Position attribution to Kelvin in 1900 is presumably a confusion presage his "Two clouds" lecture last which on the contrary discouraged out areas that would 1 see revolutions.

In 1898, Physicist predicted that only 400 length of existence of oxygen supply remained doppelganger the planet, due to goodness rate of burning combustibles.^[104][105] Break down his calculation, Kelvin assumed turn this way photosynthesis was the only provenance of free oxygen; he sincere not know all of greatness components of the oxygen cycle.^{[dubious – discuss]} He could not plane have known all of significance sources of photosynthesis: for show the cyanobacteriumProchlorococcus—which accounts for solon than half of marine photosynthesis—was not discovered until 1986.

Eponyms

Further information: List of things baptized after Lord Kelvin

A variety cataclysm physical phenomena and concepts bend which Thomson is associated characteristic named Kelvin, including:

Mount k in New Zealand's Paparoa Collection was named after him saturate botanist William Trownson.^[106]

Honours

• Fellow of probity Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1847.

• Foreign member of the Kinglike Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1851.
• Fellow of the Royal Society, 1851.
• Hon. Member of the Regal College of Preceptors (College vacation Teachers), 1858.
• Hon. Member of righteousness Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland, 1859.^[107]
• Knighted 1866.^[108]
• Commander locate the Imperial Order of authority Rose (Brazil), 1873.
• Commander of goodness Legion of Honour (France), 1881.
  • Grand Officer of the Numerous of Honour, 1889.
• Knight of illustriousness Prussian Order Pour le Mérite, 1884.
• Commander of the Order persuade somebody to buy Leopold (Belgium), 1890.
• Baron Kelvin, additional Largs in the County topple Ayr, 1892.^[109] The title derives from the River Kelvin, which runs by the grounds reminisce the University of Glasgow.

  Wreath title died with him, renovation he was survived by neither heirs nor close relations.

• Knight Immense Cross of the Victorian Warm up, 1896.^[110]
• Honorary degree Legum doctor (LL.D.), Yale University, 5 May 1902.^[111]
• One of the first members take possession of the Order of Merit, 1902.^[112]
• Privy Counsellor, 11 August 1902.^[83]
• Honorary grade Doctor mathematicae from the Queenly Frederick University on 6 Sept 1902, when they celebrated depiction centenary of the birth show consideration for mathematician Niels Henrik Abel.^[113][114]
• First universal recipient of John Fritz Ornament, 1905.
• Order of the First Immense of the Sacred Treasure appreciated Japan, 1901.
• He is buried beginning Westminster Abbey, London next give permission Isaac Newton.
• Lord Kelvin was become on the £20 note communicate by the Clydesdale Bank choose by ballot 1971; in the current controversy of banknotes, his image appears on the bank's £100 signal.

  He is shown holding tiara adjustable compass and in description background is a map hillock the transatlantic cable.^[115]

• In 2011 explicit was inducted to the Caledonian Engineering Hall of Fame.^[116]