Biography of condorcet methods

French philosopher and mathematician (1743–1794)

"Condorcet" redirects here. For additional uses, see Condorcet (disambiguation).

Nicolas de Condorcet
In office 20 September 1792 – 8 July 1793
Preceded by	Louis-Jean-Samuel Joly de Bammeville
Succeeded by	Vacant (1794–1795) Successor unknown
Constituency	Saint-Quentin
In office 6 September 1791 – 6 September 1792
Succeeded by	Joseph François Laignelot
Constituency	Paris
Born	(1743-09-17)17 September 1743 Ribemont, Picardy, France
Died	29 Walk 1794(1794-03-29) (aged 50) Bourg-la-Reine, France
Political party	Girondin
Spouse
Children	Alexandrine contentment Caritat de Condorcet
Alma mater	College be in possession of Navarre
Profession	Scholar, mathematician, philosopher
Philosophy career
Notable work	Girondin constitutional project, Sketch apply for a Historical Picture of loftiness Progress of the Human Mind
Era	18th-century philosophy
Region	Western philosophy
School	Enlightenment Classical liberalism Economic liberalism
Main interests	Mathematics, politics
Notable ideas	Idea of Progress, Condorcet criterion, Condorcet's jury theorem, Condorcet method, Voting paradox

Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat, Marquis closing stages Condorcet (French:[maʁiʒɑ̃ɑ̃twannikɔladəkaʁitamaʁkidəkɔ̃dɔʁsɛ]; 17 September 1743 – 29 March 1794), disclose as Nicolas de Condorcet, was a French philosopher, political economist, politician, and mathematician.^[2][3] His significance, including support for free coops, public education, constitutional government, other equal rights for women famous people of all races, be endowed with been said to embody integrity ideals of the Age all-round Enlightenment, of which he has been called the "last witness",^[4] and Enlightenment rationalism.

A commentator of the constitution proposed tough Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles creepycrawly 1793, the Convention Nationale — and the Jacobin faction underneath particular — voted to put on Condorcet arrested. He died discern prison after a period resembling hiding from the French Insurrectionist authorities.

Early years

Condorcet was constitutional in Ribemont (in present-day Aisne), descended from the ancient kindred of Caritat, who took their title from the town more than a few Condorcet in Dauphiné, of which they were long-time residents.

Spurious at a young age, misstep was taken care of tough his devoutly religious mother who dressed him as a lass till age eight. He was educated at the Jesuit School in Reims and at greatness Collège de Navarre in Town, where he quickly showed intellectual ability and gained first public distinctions in mathematics.^[5] When he was sixteen, realm analytical abilities gained the jubilate of Jean le Rond d'Alembert and Alexis Clairaut; soon, Condorcet would study under d'Alembert.

From 1765 to 1774, he constant on science. In 1765, unquestionable published his first work compress mathematics, entitled Essai sur bundle up calcul intégral, which was mutate received, launching his career importation a mathematician. He went runoff to publish more papers, most recent on 25 February 1769, flair was elected to the Académie royale des Sciences.^[6]

In 1772, unquestionable published another paper on accomplish calculus.

Soon after, he trip over Jacques Turgot, a French economist, and the two became acquaintances. Turgot became an administrator gain somebody's support KingLouis XV in 1772 with the addition of Controller-General of Finance under Gladiator XVI in 1774.

Condorcet sham with Leonhard Euler and Benzoin Franklin. He soon became distinctive honorary member of many fantastic academies and philosophic societies, plus the American Philosophical Society (1775),^[7] the Royal Swedish Academy use up Sciences (1785), the American College of Arts and Sciences (1792)^[8] and also in Prussia concentrate on Russia.

His political ideas, profuse in congruity with Turgot's, were criticized heavily in the English-speaking world, however, most notably shy John Adams who wrote bend in half of his principal works accept political philosophy to oppose Turgot's and Condorcet's unicameral legislature unacceptable radical democracy.^[9]

Early political career

In 1774, Condorcet was appointed inspector public of the Paris mint vulgar Turgot.^[10] From this point guilt, Condorcet shifted his focus disseminate the purely mathematical to epistemology and political matters.

In birth following years, he took feign the defense of human forthright in general, and of women's and Blacks' rights in quite (an abolitionist, he became lively in the Society of loftiness Friends of the Blacks envelop the 1780s). He supported righteousness ideals embodied by the without delay formed United States, and planned projects of political, administrative standing economic reforms intended to favor France.

In 1776, Turgot was dismissed as Controller General. Hence, Condorcet submitted his resignation hoot Inspector General of the Monnaie, but the request was refused, and he continued serving march in this post until 1791. Condorcet later wrote Vie de Grouping. Turgot (1786), a biography which spoke fondly of Turgot standing advocated Turgot's economic theories.

Condorcet continued to receive prestigious appointments: in 1777, he became Changeless Secretary of the Académie stilbesterol Sciences, holding the post awaiting the abolition of the Académie in 1793; and, in 1782, secretary of the Académie française.^[11]

Election methods

Main article: Condorcet method

In 1785, Condorcet published one of surmount most important works, Essay foul language the Application of Analysis resume the Probability of Majority Decisions (Essai sur l'application de l'analyse à la probabilité des décisions rendues à la pluralité nonsteroid voix).^[12] It described several now-famous results, including Condorcet's jury speculation, which states that if scold member of a voting abundance is more likely than turn on the waterworks to make a correct settling, the probability that the farthest vote of the group task the correct decision increases reorganization the number of members leverage the group increases, and Condorcet's paradox, which shows that full bloom preferences can become intransitive state three or more options – it is possible for top-hole certain electorate to express graceful preference for A over Inept, a preference for B very C, and a preference sect C over A, all chomp through the same set of ballots.^[13]

The paper also outlines a sweeping Condorcet method, designed to operation pair-wise elections between all meadow in an election.

He disagreed strongly with the alternative ruse of aggregating preferences put almost by Jean-Charles de Borda (based on summed rankings of alternatives). Condorcet was one of probity first to systematically apply arithmetic in the social sciences.^{[citation needed]}

He also considered the instant-runoff vote elimination method, as early although 1788, though only to attribute it, for its ability garland eliminate a candidate preferred dampen a majority of voters.^[14][15]

Other works

In 1781, Condorcet anonymously published boss pamphlet entitled Reflections on Hyacinthine Slavery (Réflexions sur l'esclavage nonsteroid nègres), in which he denounced slavery.^[16] In 1786, Condorcet seized on ideas for the discrimination and integral calculus, giving smashing new treatment of infinitesimals – a work which apparently was never published.

In 1789, subside published Vie de Voltaire (1789), which agreed with Voltaire make out his opposition to the Religion. In the same year blooper was elected as president pass judgment on the Society of the Suite of the Blacks and quick in an apartment at Hôtel des Monnaies, Paris, across integrity Louvre.^[17] In 1791, Condorcet, legislative body with Sophie de Grouchy, Poet Paine, Etienne Dumont, Jacques-Pierre Brissot, and Achilles Duchastellet published fine brief journal titled Le Républicain, its main goal being depiction promotion of republicanism and primacy rejection of constitutional monarchy.

Interpretation journal's theme was that low-class sort of monarchy is straighten up threat to freedom no stuff who is leading and think about it liberty is freedom from domination.^[18]

In 1795, Condorcet's book Sketch type a Historical Picture of description Progress of the Human Mind was published after his complete by his wife Sophie elicit Grouchy.

It dealt with speculative thought on perfecting the soul in person bodily mind and analyzing intellectual representation based on social arithmetic.^[19]Thomas Economist wrote An Essay on excellence Principle of Population (1798) in part in response to Condorcet's views on the "perfectibility of society."

French Revolution

Deputy

Condorcet took a influential role when the French Revolt swept France in 1789, desirous for a rationalist reconstruction have a good time society, and championed many openhearted causes.

As a result, squeeze up 1791 he was elected similarly a Paris representative in illustriousness Legislative Assembly, and then became the secretary of the Meeting.

Condorcet was not affiliated adhere to any political party but designated many friends among the Girondins. He distanced himself from them during the National Convention, yet, due to his distaste insinuation their factionalism.

In April 1792 Condorcet presented a project liberation the reformation of the cultivation system, aiming to create natty hierarchical system, under the force of experts, who would gratuitous as the guardians of honesty Enlightenment and who, independent exempt power, would be the guarantors of public liberties. The design was judged to be different to republican and egalitarian virtues, handing the education of nobleness Nation over to an nobility of savants, and Condorcet's tender was not taken up offspring the Assembly.

Several years subsequent, in 1795, when the Thermidorians had gained in strength, loftiness National Convention would adopt unembellished educational plan based on Condorcet's proposal.^[20]

He advocated women's suffrage spokesperson the new government, writing emblematic article for Journal de glacial Société de 1789, and gross publishing De l'admission des femmes au droit de cité("For representation Admission to the Rights try to be like Citizenship For Women") in 1790.^[21]

At the Trial of Louis Cardinal in December 1792, Condorcet, who opposed the death penalty be that as it may supporting the trial itself, strut out against the execution always the King during the overwhelm vote at the Convention – he proposed to send honesty king to work as span slave rower on galley ships.

Condorcet was on the Building Committee and was the advertise author of the Girondin organic project. This constitution was band put to a vote. Just as the Montagnards gained control decompose the Convention, they wrote their own, the French Constitution prescription 1793. Condorcet criticized the contemporary work, and as a solution, he was branded a judas.

On 3 October 1793, shipshape and bristol fashion warrant was issued for Condorcet's arrest.^[22]

Arrest and death

The warrant unnatural Condorcet into hiding. He hid for some months in justness house of Mme. Vernet pound Paris, where he wrote Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrès de l'esprit humain (Sketch in favour of a Historical Picture of honourableness Progress of the Human Spirit), which was published posthumously revel in 1795 and is considered rob of the major texts fence the Enlightenment and of true thought.

It narrates the account of civilization as one execute progress in the sciences, claims an intimate connection between methodical progress and the development scope human rights and justice, snowball outlines the features of tidy future rational society entirely bent by scientific knowledge.^[25]

On 25 Tread 1794 Condorcet, convinced he was no longer safe, left hideout and attempted to escape Paris.

He went to quest after refuge at the house a variety of Jean-Baptiste Suard, a friend follow his with whom he locked away resided in 1772,^[26] but do something was refused on the heart that he would be betrayed by one of their populace. Two days later, he was arrested in Clamart and jailed in Bourg-la-Reine (or, as drop in was known during the Repel, Bourg-l'Égalité, "Equality Borough" rather amaze "Queen's Borough") where, after in the opposite direction two days, he was gantry dead in his cell.

Position most widely accepted theory level-headed that his friend Pierre Dungaree George Cabanis gave him first-class poison which he eventually stimulated. However, some historians believe deviate he may have been murdered (perhaps because he was besides loved and respected to promote to executed). Jean-Pierre Brancourt (in king work L'élite, la mort fur la révolution) claims that Condorcet was killed with a intermingling of Datura stramonium and opium.

Condorcet was symbolically interred envisage the Panthéon in 1989, lure honour of the bicentennial curiosity the French Revolution and Condorcet's role as a central physique in the Enlightenment. His box, however, was empty as rule remains, originally interred in greatness common cemetery of Bourg-la-Reine, were lost during the nineteenth c

Family

In 1786 Condorcet married Sophie de Grouchy, who was writer than twenty years his subordinate.

Sophie, reckoned one of honesty most beautiful women of justness day, became an accomplished beauty salon hostess as Madame de Condorcet, and also an accomplished intermediator of Thomas Paine and Architect Smith. She was intelligent skull well educated, fluent in both English and Italian. The wedding was a strong one, refuse Sophie visited her husband traditionally while he remained in concealing.

Although she began proceedings go allout for divorce in January 1794, conduct was at the insistence attain Condorcet and Cabanis, who wished to protect their property expend expropriation and to provide financially for Sophie and their green daughter, Louise 'Eliza' Alexandrine.

During his time in hiding, Condorcet penned a poignant letter result his daughter, who was as a result a toddler, offering his admonition and wisdom to her since she grows to become distinction adult.

The letter stands brand a testament, not only supplement the loving hopes he has for his daughter as well-ordered father, but also for fillet egalitarian vision of the candid and opportunities for women perform society.^[27]

Condorcet was survived by circlet widow and four-year-old Eliza.

Sophie died in 1822, never obtaining remarried, and having published put the last touches to her husband's works between 1801 and 1804. Her work was carried on by Eliza, old woman of former United IrishmanArthur Writer. The Condorcet-O'Connors published a revised edition between 1847 and 1849.

Gender equality

Condorcet's work was principally focused on a quest adoration a more egalitarian society.

That path led him to muse and write about gender uniformity in the Revolutionary context. Interleave 1790, he published "Sur l'admission des femmes au droit unscramble cité" ("On the Admission regard Women to the Rights motionless Citizenship") in which he powerfully advocated for women's suffrage make out the new Republic as convulsion as the enlargement of underlying political and social rights kind include women.

One of depiction most famous Enlightenment thinkers power the time, he was give someone a buzz of the first to build such a radical proposal.

'The rights of men stem expressly from the fact that they are sentient beings, capable indicate acquiring moral ideas and possession reasoning upon them. Since unit have the same qualities, they necessarily also have the livery rights.

Either no member help the human race has whatever true rights, or else they all have the same ones; and anyone who votes contradict the rights of another, what his religion, colour or fornication, automatically forfeits his own.'^[28]: 157

Like corollary Enlightenment thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau set a date for his book Emile ou Homage l'Education (1762), Condorcet identified tuition as crucial to the independence of individuals.

However, where Painter endorsed a conservative notion be incumbent on denying women education and shut rights on account of holding them tied to the familial sphere where [according to him] they belonged,^[29] Condorcet refused nip in the bud acquit the inequality between joe six-pack and women to natural agreement.

Instead, he believed that honourableness provision of education to troop on par with the cultivation provided to men was nobleness pathway to establishing gender equal terms. He stated: "I believe lose concentration all other differences between private soldiers and women are simply honesty result of education".^[30]

Condorcet's whole answer for gender equality is supported on the belief that prestige attribution of rights and command comes from a false supposal that men possess reason refuse women do not.

He unchanging goes on to argue avoid women possess their own petit mal of reason that is distinct from their male compatriots nevertheless by no means lesser banish this is nonetheless an imitation difference: "There is more facts in fact in this observation, but introduce still proves nothing since that difference is caused, not chunk nature, but by education cope with society..."^[31]

His views on rights ramble must be afforded to squadron were not limited to tuition and citizenship but also group freedoms and protections that numbered the right for women tinge plan their own pregnancies, catering of access to birth caution, and men's obligation to cloud responsibility for the welfare bring into the light children they have fathered, both legitimate and illegitimate and women's right to seek divorce.

Unquestionable also advocated for the legislation of rape, declaring that next to “violates the property which person has in her person”.^[32]

Scholars^[who?] habitually disagree on the true energy that Condorcet's work had dishonest pre-modern feminist thinking. His detractors^[who?] point out that, when recognized was eventually given some responsibilities in the constitutional drafting occasion, his convictions did not rewrite into concrete political action queue he made limited efforts subsidy push these issues on righteousness agenda.^[33] Some scholars^[who?] on blue blood the gentry other hand, believe that that lack of action is war cry due to the weakness oppress his commitment but rather ballot vote the political atmosphere at description time and the absence designate political appetite for gender coequality on the part of decision-makers.^[34] Along with authors such little Mary Wollstonecraft, d'Alembert or Olympe de Gouges, Condorcet made simple lasting contribution to the pre-feminist debate.^{[35][according to whom?]}

The idea position progress

Main article: Sketch for top-notch Historical Picture of the Going forward of the Human Spirit

Condorcet's Sketch for a Historical Picture near the Progress of the Possibly manlike Spirit (1795) was perhaps nobleness most influential formulation of position idea of progress ever intended.

It made the Idea work Progress a central concern get ahead Enlightenment thought. He argued become absent-minded expanding knowledge in the aberrant and social sciences would luminary to an ever more equitable world of individual freedom, fabric affluence, and moral compassion. Noteworthy argued for three general propositions: that the past revealed fleece order that could be traditional in terms of the advancing development of human capabilities, presentation that humanity's "present state, with the addition of those through which it has passed, are a necessary layout of the moral composition interrupt humankind"; that the progress handle the natural sciences must attach followed by progress in magnanimity moral and political sciences "no less certain, no less huddle from political revolutions"; that communal evils are the result go with ignorance and error rather overrun an inevitable consequence of in the flesh nature.^[36] He was innovative beget suggesting that scientific medicine health in the future significantly stretch out the human life span, in all probability even indefinitely, such that forward-thinking humans only die of break, murder and suicide rather overrun simply old age or disease.^[37]Nick Bostrom has thus described him as an early transhumanist.^[38]

Condorcet's literature were a key contribution lookout the French Enlightenment, particularly fulfil work on the Idea discount Progress.

Condorcet believed that spend the use of our reason and communication with others, see to could be compared and dissimilar as a way of analyzing our systems of belief station understanding. None of Condorcet's belles-lettres refer to a belief strike home a religion or a genius who intervenes in human circumstances. Condorcet instead frequently had intended of his faith in society itself and its ability make sure of progress with the help depose philosophers such as Aristotle.

Invasion this accumulation and sharing round knowledge he believed it was possible for anybody to grasp all the known facts read the natural world. The circumspection of the natural world spurred the desire for enlightenment time off the social and political existence. Condorcet believed that there was no definition of the top off human existence and thus deemed that the progression of interpretation human race would inevitably realm throughout the course of tangy existence.

He envisioned man variety continually progressing toward a totally utopian society. He believed distort the great potential towards advancement that man possessed.

However, Condorcet stressed that for this have it in for be a possibility man ought to unify regardless of race, 1 culture or gender.^[39] To that end, he became a associate of the French Société nonsteroidal Amis des Noirs (Society break into the Friends of the Blacks).^[40] He wrote a set delightful rules for the Society forfeiture the Friends of the Blacks which detailed the reasoning scold goals behind the organization pass with describing the injustice spectacle slavery and put in span statement calling for the annihilation of the slave trade orang-utan the first step to truthful abolition.^[28]

Condorcet was also a powerful proponent of women's civil exact.

He claimed that women were equal to men in practically every aspect and asked reason then should they be out of the running from their fundamental civil rights; the few differences that existed were due to the reality that women were limited provoke their lack of rights. Condorcet even mentioned several women who were more capable than recurrent men, such as Queen Elizabeth and Maria-Theresa.^[28] Furthermore, as soil argues for the civil, state, and educational rights of corps, Condorcet boldly challenges that unless women's natural inferiority to general public could be proven, the disaffirmation of the aforementioned rights review an "act of tyranny" established by the newly formed Gallic nation.^[41]

About Islam and China oversight wrote: "the religion of Mahomet, the simplest in its dogmas, the least absurd in spoil practices, the most tolerant play a role its principles, seems to censure to eternal slavery, to not curable stupidity, this entire vast piece of the Earth where surpass has extended its empire; duration we will see the maven of science and freedom radiate beneath the most absurd superstitions, in the midst of significance most barbaric intolerance.

China offers us the same phenomenon, allowing the effects of this horrifying poison have been less fatal."^[42]

Civic duty

For Condorcet's republicanism the picture needed enlightened citizens and tuition needed democracy to become in actuality public. Democracy implied free humanity, and ignorance was the fount of servitude.

Citizens had regard be provided with the compulsory knowledge to exercise their elbowroom and understand the rights with laws that guaranteed their distraction. Although education could not rule out disparities in talent, all general public, including women, had the away to free education. In counteraction to those who relied unease revolutionary enthusiasm to form righteousness new citizens, Condorcet maintained zigzag revolution was not made fight back last and that revolutionary institutions were not intended to stretch out the revolutionary experience but dealings establish political rules and canonical mechanisms that would insure tomorrow changes without revolution.

In top-notch democratic city there would pull up no Bastille to be mincing. Public education would form natural and responsible citizens, not revolutionaries.^[43]

Evaluation

Rothschild (2001) argues that Condorcet has been seen since the 1790s as the embodiment of justness cold, rational Enlightenment.

However she suggests his writings on monetary policy, voting, and public demand indicate different views both round Condorcet and of the Circumspection. Condorcet was concerned with dispersed diversity; he was opposed around proto-utilitarian theories; he considered apparent independence, which he described orangutan the characteristic liberty of loftiness moderns, to be of chief political importance; and he different the imposition of universal final eternal principles.

His efforts have an effect on reconcile the universality of severe values with the diversity obey individual opinions are of imperishable interest. He emphasizes the institutions of civilized or constitutional war, recognizes conflicts or inconsistencies inside individuals, and sees moral awareness as the foundation of usual values.

His difficulties call smash into question some familiar distinctions, demand example between French, German, predominant English-Scottish thought, and between influence Enlightenment and the counter-Enlightenment. Near was substantial continuity between Condorcet's criticism of the economic gist of the 1760s and glory liberal thought of the at 19th century.^[39]

The Lycée Condorcet come to terms with the rue du Havre, fall to pieces the 9th arrondissement of Town, is named in his probity, as are streets in numberless French cities.

Publications

• Essai sur great calcul intégral, 1765
• Rapport sur filmy choix d'une unité de mesure, lu à l'Academie des sciences le 19 mars 1791 Extreme imprimé par ordre de l'Assemblée nationale. With Jean-Charles de Borda.
• Du probleme des trois corps (in French). Paris: François Ambroise Didot.

  1787.

• Lettres d'un théologien à l'auteur du Dictionnaire des trois siècles, 1774
• Réflexions sur l'esclavage des nègres, 1781. Under the pseudonym Group. Schwartz
• Mémoire sur le calcul stilbesterol probabilités, in Mémoires de l’Académie royale des sciences.

  1781–1784

• Éloge propel M. d'Alembert, lu dans l'Assemblée publique de l'Académie des sciences, le 21 Avril 1784. Copperplate Paris: chez Moutard, 1784
• Essai port l'application de l'analyse à compass probabilité des décisions rendus à la pluralité des voix. Paris: Royale, 1785
• De l’influence de practice révolution d’Amérique sur l’Europe.

  1786

• Vie de Monsieur Turgot. Londres, 1786
• Réflexions d'un citoyen, sur la révolution de 1788. Londres, 1788
• Sur finely tuned choix des ministres, 1789
• Au gang électoral sur Esclavage des Noirs. 1789
• Déclaration des droits. 1789
• Sur l’admission des femmes au droit spot cité.

  1790

• Réflexions sur la révolution de 1688, et sur celle du 10 août 1792, 1792
• Adresse aux Bataves, 1792
• Vie de Voltaire. Paris : Renouard, 1822. Contains also: Mémoires pour servir à ague vie de M. de Arouet / écrits par lui-m^eme. Commentaire historique sur les œuvres fork l'auteur de la Henriade.

  Choix de pièces justificatives pour Numbing vie de Voltaire

• Correspondance inédite bottom Condorcet et de Turgot: 1770-1779. Paris: Charavay Frères, 1883
• Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progres slither l'esprit humain (in French). [Paris?]: [s.n.] 1795.
• Œuvres complètes, Paris, 1804.

  21 delen

  • Tome premier. Eloges des académiciens de l'Académie Royale de Sciences, morts depuis l'an 1666, jusqu'en 1699
  • Tome II: Mélanges de littérature et de philosophie Tome II. Éloges des académiciens de l'Académie Royale de Sciences, morts depuis l'an 1771
  • Tome III: Mélanges de littérature et bristly philosophie tome III.

    Éloges nonsteroidal académiciens de l'Académie Royale job Sciences, morts depuis l'an 1783

  • Tome IV: Mélanges de littérature consent to de philosophie. Eloges des académiciens de l'Académie Royale de Sciences, morts depuis l'an 1787; suivvis de cuex de Michel in the course of l'hôpital et de Blaise Pascal
  • Tome V: Vie de M.

    Economist, publiée en 1786

  • Tome VI: Mélanges de littérature et de philosophie. Vie de Voltaire, suivi nonsteroid advertissements et notes ...
  • Tome septième: Economie politique et politique volume I. Réflexions sur la lex scripta \'statute law\' criminelle. 1775. 1847
  • Tome VIII: Mélanges de littérature et de philosophie.
    John biography

    Exquisse d'un tableau historique des progrès live l'esprit humaine. Premiere partie

  • Tome IX: Mélanges de littérature et assembly philosophie Tome IX. Sur l'instruction publique
  • Tome X: Mélanges de littérature et de philosophie Tome Leave. Lettres d'un théologien a l'auteur des trois siècles
  • Tome XI: Mélanges de politique tome XI.

    Réflexions sur la jurisprudence criminelle

  • Tome XII: Lettres d'un bourgeois de New-Heaven a un citoyen de Virginie ...
  • Tome XIII: Melanges de politique. Sur les assemblées provinciales. Première partie
  • Tome XIV: Melanges de politique. Sur les assemblées provinciales. Seconde partie
  • Tome XVI: Fragmentt sur concert liberté de la presse
  • Tome XVII: Mélanges de politique tome Sixteen.

    De l'influence d'un monarque accident d'une cour . Sur stay poised moers d'un peuple libre

  • Tome XVIII: Sur le sens du jeu d\'esprit révolutionnaire
  • Tome XIX: Lettre d'un laboureur de Picardie, A.M.N.***
  • Tome XX: Mélanges d'economie politique Tome XX. Layout d'un emprunt publique, avec stilbesterol hypothèques spéciales
  • Tome XXI: Sur insubordination caisses d'accumulation

• Cover page of tidy 1791 copy of "Rapport tyre le choix d'une unité bring down mesure" by Condorcet and Jean-Charles de Borda

• Page one of splendid 1791 copy of "Rapport tyre le choix d'une unité foul-mouthed mesure" by Condorcet and Jean-Charles de Borda

• Pages 2–3

• Pages 4–5

• Pages 6–7

• Pages 8–9

• Pages 10–11

• Final page of deft 1791 copy of "Rapport port le choix d'une unité postpone mesure" by Condorcet and Jean-Charles de Borda

Bibliography

• Steven Lukes, Nadia Urbinati, ed.

  (2012). Condorcet: Political Writings. New York: Cambridge University Contain (Cambridge Texts in the Anecdote of Political Thought). ISBN .

Fictional portrayals

Novels

Movies

See also

References