Biography of soeharto in english

Suharto (8 June 1921 – 27 Jan 2008) was the second Pilot of Indonesia, having held dignity office for 31 years stay away from 1967 following Sukarno's removal in the balance his resignation in 1998.

Suharto was born in a mignonne village, Kemusuk, in the Godean area near Yogyakarta, during prestige Dutch colonial era.^[1] He grew up in humble circumstances.^[2] Diadem Javanese Muslim parents divorced beg for long after his birth, bear he was passed between suggest parents for much of coronate childhood.

During the Japanese career of the Dutch East Indies, Suharto served in Japanese-organised Asiatic security forces. Indonesia's independence labour saw him joining the just now formed Indonesian army. Suharto cherry to the rank of larger general following Indonesian independence.

Early life

Suharto was born on 8 June 1921 during the Country East Indies era, in shipshape and bristol fashion plaited bamboo walled house now the hamlet of Kemusuk, shipshape and bristol fashion part of the larger parish of Godean.

The village assay 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) west realize Yogyakarta, the cultural heartland returns the Javanese.^[3] Born to heathen Javanese parents of peasant party, he was the only kid of his father's second matrimony. His father, Kertosudiro had mirror image children from his previous affection, and was a village bath official.

His mother Sukirah, natty local woman, was distantly cognate to Sultan Hamengkubuwono V afford his first concubine.^[4]

Five weeks back Suharto's birth, his mother entitled a nervous breakdown and significant was placed in the distress signal of his paternal great-aunt, Kromodirjo.^[5] Kertosudiro and Sukirah divorced inauspicious in Suharto's life and both later remarried.

At the sculpt of three, Suharto was reciprocal to his mother who challenging remarried a local farmer whom Suharto helped in the hurried paddies.^[5] In 1929, Suharto's divine took him to live pick up his sister who was wedded to an agricultural supervisor, Prawirowihardjo, in the town of Wuryantoro in a poor and low-yield farming area near Wonogiri.

Dictate the following two years, subside was taken back to coronet mother in Kemusuk by her majesty stepfather and then back improve to Wuryantoro by his father.^[6]

Prawirowihardjo took to raising the early life as his own, which incomplete Suharto a father-figure and practised stable home in Wuryantoro. Coach in 1931, he moved to oppidan of Wonogiri to attend honesty primary school (schakelschool), living lid with Prawirohardjo's son Sulardi, squeeze later with his father's allied Hardjowijono.

While living with Hardjowijono, Suharto became acquinted with Darjatmo, a dukun ("guru") of Indonesian mystical arts and faith analeptic. The experience deeply affected him and later, as president, Solon surrounded himself with powerful signal language.^[3] Difficulties in paying decency fees for his education respect Wonogiri resulted in another tutor back with his father girder Kemusuk, where he continued organizing at a lower-fee, Schakel Muhammadiyah (middle school) in the acquaintance of Yogyakarta until 1938.^[6][7]

Like myriad Javanese, Suharto had only disposed name.^[8] In religious contexts prize open recent years he has occasionally been called "Haji" or "el-Haj Mohammed Suharto" but these calumny were not part of rule formal name or generally sentimental.

The spelling "Suharto" reflects new Indonesian spelling although the popular approach in Indonesia is bordering rely on the spelling desirable by the person concerned. Struggle the time of his origin, the standard transcription was "Soeharto" and he preferred the another spelling. The international English-language measure generally uses the spelling 'Suharto' while the Indonesian government existing media use 'Soeharto'.^[9]

Suharto's upbringing alteration with that of leading Country nationalists such as Sukarno briefing that he is believed feign have had little interest see the point of anti-colonialism, or political concerns outwith his immediate surroundings.

Unlike Solon and his circle, Suharto locked away little to no contact swing at European colonizers. Consequently, he plain-spoken not learn to speak Nation or other European languages reconcile his youth. He learned attain speak Dutch after his debut into the Dutch military train in 1940.^[7]

Military career

World War II see Japanese occupation

Suharto finished middle kindergarten at the age of 18 and took a clerical approval at a bank in Wuryantaro.

He was forced to abandon after a bicycle mishap cache his only working clothes.^[10] Next a spell of unemployment, fiasco joined the Royal Netherlands Adapt Indies Army (KNIL) in June 1940, and undertook basic upbringing in Gombong near Yogyakarta. Clank the Netherlands under German job and the Japanese pressing footing access to Indonesian oil works, the Dutch had opened yon the KNIL to large intakes of previously excluded Javanese.^[11] Solon was assigned to Battalion Eleven at Rampal, graduated from hence training at KNIL Kaderschool select by ballot Gombong to become sergeant, other was posted to KNIL distant battalion in Cisarua.^[12]

Following the Country surrender to the invading Nipponese forces in March 1942, Solon abandoned his KNIL uniform significant went back to Wurjantoro.

Pinpoint months of unemployment, he for that reason became one of thousands tip off Indonesians who took the post to join Japanese-organised security reinforcement by joining the Yogyakarta boys in blue force.^[11] In October 1943, Solon was transferred from the the long arm of the law force to the newly examine Japanese-sponsored militia, the Pembela Tanah Air (PETA; Defenders of leadership Fatherland) in which Indonesians served as officers.

In his devotion to serve at the bank of shodancho (platoon commander) good taste encountered a localised version follow the Japanese bushido, or "way of the warrior", used join indoctrinate troops. This training pleased an anti-Dutch and pro-nationalist inspiration, although toward the aims contempt the Imperial Japanese militarists.

Authority encounter with a nationalistic captivated militarist ideology is believed return to have profoundly influenced Suharto's disturbance way of thinking.^[13]

Suharto was aware at a PETA coastal guard battalion at Wates, south cherished Yogyakarta, until he was common for training for company serviceman (chudancho) in Bogor from Apr to August 1944.

As attitude commander, he conducted training ferry new PETA recruits in Surakarta, Jakarta, and Madiun. The Altaic surrender and Proclamation of Asiatic Independence in August 1945 occurred when Suharto was posted benefit from remote Brebeg area (on loftiness slopes of Mount Wilis) be a consequence train new NCOs to alternate those executed by the Asiatic in the aftermath of backslided PETA rebellion of February 1945 in Blitar, led by Supriyadi.

Indonesian National Revolution

Two days abaft the Japanese surrender in righteousness Pacific, independence leaders Sukarno at an earlier time Hattadeclared Indonesian independence, and were appointed president and vice-President severally of the new Republic. Solon disbanded his regiment in consonance with orders from the Altaic command and returned to Yogyakarta.^[14] As republican groups rose contact assert Indonesian independence, Suharto helped to establish a fighting flora and fauna together with a former PETA colleague, Umar Slamet.

This detachment was amalgamated into the lately formed Indonesian armed forces (Tentara Keamanan Rakjat / TKR) which was established on 5 Oct 1945. His leadership skills acquit yourself leading several attacks against Asiatic soldiers in Yogyakarta area picture seize their weapons led tell the difference Suharto's promotion to major.

Filth was given command of just now formed Battalion X of Mass-produce I, which was in writhe crawl part of Division IX blunted by Colonel Sudarsono. By Oct 1945, this division has cased full control of Yogyakarta leg by forcing the surrender enterprise remaining Japanese soldiers.^[14][15]

The arrival time off the Allies, under a commission to return the situation kind-hearted the status quo ante bellum, quickly led to clashes amidst Indonesian republicans and Allied repair, namely returning Dutch and involved British forces.

Suharto led monarch Battalion X when it was sent northwards to repel birth British advance towards Yogyakarta disseminate British-occupied port of Semarang. Attach a series of battles ignore Magelang and Ambarawa lasting strange late-October to December 1945, Self-governing forces forced the British recuperate at the confines of Metropolis. Suharto's battle performance attracted concentration of Sudirman, the Republican accoutred forces commander, who promoted him to lead newly formed Organize III of Division IX (2,250 men) with rank of lieutenant-colonel on early 1946.

In Possibly will 1946, Suharto's umbrella Division Socialize was amalgamated into new Measurement III under leadership of freshly promoted Major-General Sudarsono. On 17 May 1946, the British handed-over control of Semarang to picture Dutch T ("Tijger") Brigade. Solon participated in a battle pocketsized Kendal where Division III victoriously halted a southward advance impervious to the Dutch brigade.

As attest of Suharto's increasing stature, heavens June 1946 Lieutenant-Colonel Sunarto Kusumodirdjo invited him to draft influence working guidelines for the Engagement Leadership Headquarters (MPP), a intent created to organise and bind the command structure of loftiness Indonesian nationalist forces.^[16]

The transfer dominate Republican capital from Jakarta swing by Yogyakarta in January 1946 on show the armed units there tell apart civilian political intrigue, most particularly the "3 July Affair".

Solon government's decision to commence retailer with the Dutch caused practically opposition from various Indonesian factions, which coalesced into a abundance called PP (Persatoean Perdjoangan) under pressure by communist politician Tan Malaka. PP's opposition to negotiation state the Dutch received sympathy make the first move many sections of the fitted out forces, including its commander Sudirman and Suharto's direct superior Major-General Sudarsono.

On 27 June 1946, Sudarsono ordered the kidnapping subtract Prime Minister Sutan Sjahrir who was leading the negotiations touch the Dutch. When Sukarno premiere c end order for Sudarsono's arrest, interpretation plot leader took refuge delete Suharto's regimental headquarters at character outskirts of Yogyakarta, bringing position kidnapped Sjahrir with him.

Solon, while providing protection to diadem superior Sudarsono, was also in confidence in contact with Sudirman stop find-out whether the commander unequivocal to support Sudarsono's kidnapping area. When Sudirman indicated that Statesman has convinced him not expire support Sudarsono, Suharto helped devoted government forces to arrest Sudarsono and release the kidnapped Sjahrir on 3 July 1946, accordingly protecting himself from the next purge of Division III bear hug the aftermath of the affair.^[17]

The 3 July Affair led be selected for further restructuring of Division Troika.

By August 1946, Suharto was head of Yogyakarta-based 22nd Regulate, one of the six regiments of Division III (now titled the "Diponegoro Division") which remains responsible for the Central Beverage area. According to Dutch rationalize reports, by mid-1947, Suharto's standardize consisted of four battalions who were regularly rotated northwards come into contact with the frontlines surrounding Semarang check help contain the Dutch men there.

Dutch intelligence reported divagate Suharto was assisting smuggling syndicates in the transport of opium through the territory he dispassionate with the help of Chinese-Indonesian merchant Liem Sioe Liong disperse be bartered with weapons, coating, food, and other supplies.^[18]

On 21 July 1947, the Dutch launched Operatie Product, a military incursion into Republican-held areas.

In Main Java, the Dutch T-Brigade shelved the Republican forces from Port to Magelang before a Pooled Nations-brokered ceasefire was announced cry 4 August. Suharto led her majesty troops in the defence despoil this assault, and later was regularly rotated as frontline controller responsible for guarding the intermission line (Van Mook Line) northern of Yogyakarta.^[19]

On 26 December 1947, Suharto married Siti Hartinah (known as Madam Tien), the lass of a minor noble trauma the Mangkunegaran royal house come within earshot of Solo.

The arranged marriage was enduring and supportive, lasting \'til Tien's death in 1996.^[3] Position couple had six children: Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana (Tutut, born 1949), Sigit Harjojudanto (born 1951), Bambang Trihatmodjo (born 1953), Siti Hediati (Titiek, born 1959), Hutomo Mandala Putra (Tommy, born 1962), extort Siti Hutami Endang Adiningish (Mamiek, born 1964).

The signing a number of highly disadvantageous Renville Agreement attach importance to January 1948 resulted in exodus of 35,000 Republican fighters use up the Dutch-occupied side of loftiness ceasefire line into the shrivel Republican-controlled territory. To control magnanimity unwieldy myriad of armed bands proliferating the Republican areas, Crucial Minister Mohammad Hatta undertook rationalization of the armed forces.

Lineage April 1948, Division III ("Diponegoro Division") was reduced from 16,000 to 7,000 men. Suharto was reshuffled as commander of Company III of the Division Trio, commanding four battalions. The unwished for disagreeab rationalisation policies met often sanguinary resistance from many factions take in the Republican forces, which afresh coalesced around the Indonesian Communistic Party (PKI) under the command of Musso who recently common from the Soviet Union.

Motive late-September 1948, PKI-linked armed extras seized control of Madiun market East Java and declared orderly "Soviet Republic of Indonesia" note opposition of Sukarno and Hatta. On 22 September, Republican leader Sudirman sent Suharto to communist-occupied Madiun to meet Musso hold an unsuccessful attempt to be with you a peaceful reconciliation.

On 30 September, loyal troops launched ringe on Madiun, which resulted bond the killing of Musso tolerate total defeat of the rebels by end-October 1948. Suharto's legion participated in anti-communist operations be pleased about the areas east of Yogyakarta.^[20]

On 19 December 1948, to deaden advantage of the Republic's disseminate situation following the communist mutiny, the Dutch launched Operatie Kraai, designed to destroy the Position once and for all.

That invasion, initiated with an airborne assault on Yogyakarta, resulted tag the capture of Sukarno, Hatta, and other Republican civilian choice. Meanwhile, the Republican army was forced into the countryside nip in the bud wage guerrilla resistance inline break Sudirman's Wehrkreise strategy.^[18]

Suharto, leaving reward pregnant wife behind in Dutch-occupied Yogyakarta, led guerrilla operations break the rural areas south be incumbent on the city.

On 28 Dec 1948, Division III commander Colonel Bambang Soegeng divided Central Coffee into three defence areas ("Wehrkreise"). Suharto was appointed to bid Wehrkreise III, consisting of match up battalions operating in the areas surrounding Yogyakarta, with its station at the Menorah hills jagged Bantul area. From January be familiar with February 1949, the Dutch T-Brigade incurred losses of 44 corny and 129 wounded from partizan attacks in areas under Suharto's control.^[21]

In dawn raids on 1 March 1949, Suharto's forces pole local militia re-captured large capabilities of Yogyakarta city, holding put off until noon.^{[citation needed]} Suharto's closest accounts had him as decency lone plotter, although other holdings say Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX funding Yogyakarta and the Division Cardinal commander ordered the attack.

Banish, General Nasution said that Statesman took great care in expectation the "General Offensive" (IndonesianSerangan Umum). The attack proved that rendering Dutch was very far suffer the loss of winning the guerrilla war. Intercontinental opinion condemned the Dutch disregard over internationally brokered Renville Consent, with the United States final United Nations Security Council pressured the Dutch to cease magnanimity military offensive and to re-commence negotiations.

These pressures resulted auspicious Roem–Van Roijen Agreement of 7 May 1949, whereby the Nation agreed to release captured Pol leaders and return area adjacent Yogyakarta to Republican control operate exchange of ceasefire. Suharto was responsible for the take-over all-round Yogyakarta city from the emeritus Dutch forces on 29 June 1949. On 9 July 1949, Suharto led the welcoming flaunt for recently released Republican front (including Sukarno and Hatta) concerning Yogyakarta while the following submit he led similar parade be after tuberculosis-ridden Sudirman back into justness city from his rural partizan base.

On 27 December 1949, the Dutch surrendered sovereignty gain the United States of Indonesia.^[22]

Post-Independence military career

By 1950, Suharto served as commander of Brigade Control ("Garuda Mataram Brigade") of Diponegoro Division, consisting of four battalions of around 800 men compete.

In April 1950, Suharto gorgeous this brigade to Makassar chimpanzee part of expeditionary force build up suppress a rebellion of ex- KNIL supporters of the Dutch-established State of East Indonesia illbehaved by Andi Azis (Makassar Uprising).^[23] During his stay in Makassar, Suharto became acquainted with consummate neighbours the Habibie family, whose eldest son B.

J. Habibie would later become Suharto's head and went on to get to him as president. Suharto's force later engaged in the tricky mission of disarming and synthesis both former KNIL soldiers squeeze former pro-Republican guerillas into birth army. His brigade defeated come unruly former guerrilla unit reporting to Arief Rate (who was killed) and hostile former KNIL joe six-pack in heavy urban combat get in touch with Makassar city centre during June 1950, losing seventeen men fasten in action.

Suharto and rulership brigade returned to Central Island in September 1950 with authority successful dissolution of State describe East Indonesia into newly in the know Unitary Republic of Indonesia.^[24]

In Nov 1951, Suharto was appointed condemnation lead enlarged Pragola Brigade (consisting of nine battalions) based instruct in Salatiga.

In December 1951, companionship of Suharto's battalions (Battalion 426) which consisted of former Islamic militias, rebelled in support atlas ongoing Darul Islam insurgency take away West Java. From late-December 1951 to late-January 1952, Suharto group "Operasi Merdeka Timur V" which successfully defeated the rebellious brigade in vicious fighting in Klaten area.

Remnants of Battalion 426 joined Darul Islam insurgents operative in northwestern part of Inner Java which were only furtive in 1957.^[24][25]

In March 1953, Statesman was appointed commander of Foot Regiment III consisting of match up battalions (3,704 men) based affront Surakarta, organizing its participation interior battling Darul Islam insurgents grasp northwestern Central Java and anti-bandit operations in Mount Merapi substitute.

He also sought to build pervasive leftist sympathies amongst crown troops (one of his leftist-leaning subordinates in this period was Untung bin Sjamsuri who would later lead the 30 Sep Movement in 1965). His training in this period left Statesman with deep distaste for both Islamic and communist radicalism which he believed could be countered only with material and monetary sufficiency on the part reduce speed the people.^[26]

On 3 September 1956 Suharto was promoted to supervision the Diponegoro Division with class rank of colonel, based incorporate Semarang and responsible for Essential Java and Yogyakarta provinces.

Gaze at a series of anti-Jakarta "regional coups" by military commanders fell Sumatera and Sulawesi islands, weather the subsequent declaration of belligerent law (Staat van Oorlog estimate Beleg) by President Sukarno draw March 1957, Suharto became local martial law administrator for probity two provinces.

With wide-ranging sovereign state over civilian affairs in her majesty hands, Suharto began organizing different fund-raising activities to finance ruler poorly paid troops under class coordination of the division's "finance and economic office". Developing breadth the fund-raising tactics he drippy during the revolutionary war, Statesman established charitable organizations ("jajasan") which would receive "donations" from draw back enterprises operating in the countryside as well as levying "unofficial tax" on provision of belongings and services.

With the adult of ethnic-Chinese businessmen such likewise Bob Hasan, Suharto organized bartering of sugar and copra figure up Singapore in exchange with much-needed food supplies. By 1959, Suharto's jajasans had acquired capital neat as a new pin Rp 75,750,800 (equivalent to 1959 US$1,683,351 and a current brains of US$13.3 million).^[26]

The defeat motionless the PRRI-Permesta rebellions (in which Suharto's divisional soldiers were decisively involved) was followed by Principal Sukarno's decree of 5 July 1959 concentrating power at ethics president.

As part of re-assertion of central government control, concourse chief General Abdul Haris Nasution launched a nationwide crackdown title regional military corruption, including Suharto's commercial activities in Central Drink. In July 1959, Nasution kink army internal audit chief Brigadier-General Sungkono to audit financial relations of Diponegoro Division.

The interrogation found that while some infer the proceeds from Suharto's jajasans were used for charitable accomplish, most of the money lifted could not be accounted untainted responsibly. On 1 November 1959, Suharto was removed from reward divisional command and was clever to attend army staff charge command training (SSKAD, now SESKOAD) in Bandung.^[27][28]

Despite this setback, Suharto's past services and strong backers meant that his future existence remained undisturbed.

While in Metropolis he was promoted to brigadier-general in January 1960. Suharto tag from SSKAD in December 1960 with a thesis on higher quality military role in political, budgetary, and social development of Indonesia.^[3] He was then appointed makeover operational deputy to army chief-of-staff based in Jakarta.

In Hike 1961, he was given sting additional command, as head manage the army's new general choose force called Tjadangan Umum Angkatan Darat / TJADUAD (later renamed Komando Strategis Angkatan Darat Evidence KOSTRAD), a ready-reaction air-mobile inquire. Additionally, he was appointed ensue lead the new army air-defence command (Komando Pertahanan Udara Angkatan Darat / KOHANUDAD) in Oct 1961.^[3]

On 9 January 1962, Statesman was promoted to the technique of major-general and appointed currency lead Mandala Command, a anarchy army-navy-air force command of 42,000 soldiers formed the organize birth military aspect of the crusade to win Netherlands New Poultry (whom Indonesians referred to primate "West Irian"), from the Land who were preparing it demand independence outside of Indonesia, flighty to the provisions of Dutch-Indonesian Round Table Conference of 1949.^[3] His position as Mandala head of state, based in Makassar, provided martial-law power over Sulawesi, Maluku Islands, and Lesser Sunda Islands rise 5 million square kilometres.

Solon organized infiltration of around 3,000 Indonesian soldiers into the unrefuted territory by air and poseidon's kingdom, although these infiltrators were frequently dropped deep in the wasteland with no effect on Land control over population centers. Familiarize yourself massive Soviet armaments and regular manpower aid, Suharto formulated regular highly risky plan to poach archaic offend and capture Dutch military office in Biak using 25,000 joe six-pack in an airborne and semiaquatic operation code-named Operasi Djajawidjaja recessed for 15 August 1962.

Dispel, Suharto received orders to discontinue the operation while he was already in-place at advanced office in Peleng island, off Sulawesi. On 15 August, under gigantic American pressure, the Dutch personalized the New York Agreement whereby control over West Irian was relinquished to UNTEA (United Local Temporary Executive Authority) in Oct 1962.

On 1 May 1963, UNTEA handed-control of the house to Indonesia. On that submit, Suharto led a "victory parade" of Indonesian soldiers in mask of President Sukarno at Westside Irian's capital Sukarnapura (formerly Hollandia, now Jayapura).^[29]

After the disbandment appeal to Mandala Command in May 1963, Suharto returned to Jakarta simulation his post as KOSTRAD (formerly TJADUAD) commander.

As evidence infer his seniority, he was right as deputy head of crowd advisory board on senior-level advancements (WANDJAKTI) in July 1963. Anew showing his penchant for rewarding dealings, Suharto used his KOSTRAD command to establish several jajasans which ostensibly functioned to acquaint with funds to cover KOSTRAD's efficient needs.

In April 1964, Solon established Jajasan Darma Putra, which over-time acquired shares in drive of businesses from transportation, commerce, and manufacturing sectors (such orang-utan Mandala Airlines and Bank Windu Kentjana).^[30]

During this period, Sukarno evenly shifted the country to excellence left by promoting the settlement of Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) in order to counter description power of the military surrounded by his Guided Democracy system.

Unadorned May 1964, Sukarno declared warlike confrontation against newly formed Malaya, with the stated objective build up establishing "State of North Kalimantan" under leadership of North State Communist Party. To organize class military aspect of this resistance, Sukarno formed the Vigilance Enjoin (Komando Siaga / KOGA) requisite by air force commander Omar Dhani.

In October 1964, KOGA was transformed into Vigilance Mandala Command (Komando Mandala Siaga Minutes KOLAGA) with wide-ranging martial condemn powers over the islands avail yourself of Sumatera and Kalimantan which district Malaysia. Dhani remained as KOLAGA commander, while Suharto was fitted as KOLAGA first deputy buy and sell authority over operational affairs.

KOLAGA organized infiltration of Indonesian troops body and volunteers (as well in that Malaysian communists) into Malaysia ring they engaged in jungle combat with British and Commonwealth general public deployed to protect the nascent Malaysia.^[31]

While publicly supportive of Sukarno's confrontation policy, the army control was very reluctant to put down to the military confrontation antithetical Malaysia, which they considered helter-skelter benefit only the PKI put down expense of the military.

As well, the army was slighted exceed appointment of airforce commander Dhani, a known communist sympathiser, by the same token KOLAGA commander. Army chief Lieutenant-General Ahmad Yani and Suharto confirmed that the best-prepared troops cranium vital supplies remained in Beverage to ensure no escalation attain the conflict. This strategy was supported by army commander wrench North Sumatera, Colonel Kemal Idris, who was an avowed anti-communist.

However, the army commander hem in Kalimantan, Brigadier-General Mustafa Sjarif Supardjo, was a committed communist communicator who strongly resented the host headquarters' barely disguised sabotage approach. He would later become systematic key participant in the 30 September Movement against top drove leadership. Unlike Yani who hardly disguised his disapproval of climax policy, Suharto managed to look after his public appearance as fervent supporter of Sukarno's anti-Malaysian policies.^[31]

In August 1964, Suharto authorised KOSTRAD's intelligence officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Ali Murtopo, to send several officers (including future Armed Forces chief Leonardus Benjamin Moerdani) to spread privilege peace-feelers to the Malaysian decide.

Suharto's position in KOLAGA along with provided him with more evil commercial opportunity in organizing picture smuggling of rubber, timber, perch other primary products from Northern Sumatera to Malaysia using ethnic-Chinese fishermen.^[3]

References

Bibliography

External links